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In the 1980s, Japan’s semiconductor industry overtook U.S. producers, to the surprise of many. Japan’s advantage wasn’t technological; it was the cost of capital. Backed by low-rate keiretsu lending and patient, government-aligned banks, Japanese firms could finance multibillion-dollar fabrication plants on terms that their U.S. competitors couldn’t match. Within a decade, Japan controlled more than half of the global semiconductor market.

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